Management, Marketing, Business Administration & Logistics and Supply Chain Management Research Guide

Academic writing requires you to build your research upon the work of others—which means referring to scholarly sources. But failing to select the right sources can result in shoddy research and can hurt your credibility. To help you evaluate sources, we suggest using the C.R.A.P. test—that’s Currency, Reliability, Authority, and Purpose. Applying the C.R.A.P. test to your sources will show you which ones are appropriate to use in academic research. None of these filters are foolproof, but they’re a good starting point.

C is for Currency

When was the source published?

• Are you writing about the history of a subject/discipline/topic or about more recent developments?  If you are writing about the history of an event or discipline (including any field of study, not just history), then you must take into account the difference between primary and secondary sources.
  Primary sources were written at the time of the event in question, usually by someone involved. Secondary sources are written later, often by historians, critics, or others who received the information secondhand. The Diary of Anne Frank is a good example of a primary source on World War II. At the same time, a scholarly article about the diary is a good example of a secondary source. In a literary study, the primary source is the text written by the original author, while secondary sources are texts written about the work by critics.
• How recently was the source published? Depending on your discipline, it may be permissible to use a source published many years ago. In many fields, though, including those in the sciences, sources should be recent (unless you’re writing about the history of your field, as discussed above). Ask yourself if the information has changed since this source was published. If not, then it’s probably okay to use. When in doubt, ask your professor or advisor about the “expiration date” on sources related to your topic.
• If it’s an online source, is it current? Are all of its hyperlinks up to date? Out-of-date websites should be a red flag. Check to ensure the site has been updated recently (i.e., no broken links or outdated information).
   

R is for Reliability

How credible and applicable is the information?

• Is the source evaluated by experts in that particular field (also referred to as “peer-reviewed” or “refereed”)? You can limit your database searches to include only refereed articles. If unsure, check for the journal title in the online version of Ulrich’s Periodical Directory (known as Ulrichsweb), which will help you determine if the article is refereed. Non-refereed sources (like newspapers) are usually not considered as credible as refereed sources.
• Where did the source originate? If it was published by a dependable organization, like the government or a university, you’re probably better off than if an independent publisher put it out. If it is online, check the domain name. Websites ending in .edu and .gov tend to be the most trustworthy. Sites ending in .org are often unbiased, but remember that some organizations have a specific agenda. Sites ending in .com are usually trying to sell you something and are likely to be the least reputable.
• Does the source provide references? If so, it’s probably more trustworthy. These references can also be helpful to you if you are looking for more sources to consult.
   

A is for Authority

What do you know about the author(s) of the source?

• Who is the author(s)? Works put out by corporations/organizations (like universities) are sometimes more authoritative than those put out by individuals. For instance, consider the authority of an article from a physician doing research with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) versus one from a doctor in private practice. However, it can go the other way: a report from an international oil company probably wouldn’t be considered unbiased if it were on the topic of fracking.
• Are the author(s)’ credentials readily accessible and appropriate? Look for authors who have expertise in their discipline—an advanced degree, awards, recommendations from others in the field, affiliation with a distinguished organization or university, and so on. For example, a professor with a Ph.D. and years of specialized experience would be a more authoritative source on an academic subject than a journalist or celebrity.
• What if there is no author? Sometimes, works put out by corporations or organizations do not list authors. If that is the case, evaluate the credibility of the organization itself. How many resources does it have at its disposal? How renowned is it? What would it gain or lose from the information presented?
• Who published the information? Is it a reputable publisher, or did the author pay to have the book printed? Does the publisher have a vested or conflicting interest in the work? For instance, drug studies published by pharmaceutical companies are not as credible as those published by independent researchers.
   

P is for Purpose

What is the source trying to accomplish?

• Is it unbiased, or does it have an agenda (to persuade, entertain, etc.)? Be wary of publications and websites that contain advertisements—they’re likely to have an agenda designed to sell you something.
• Is the source seeking to persuade or to inform? If the author is seeking to persuade, the piece may be biased and, therefore, less credible than an informative source. If you can’t tell whether the author approves or disapproves of the topic, that’s a good sign that it’s a reputable academic source. However, even informative pieces can be biased. Look for sources that present both sides of the story and that support claims with solid evidence that is cited—not a vague statement that “researchers have found this” but a citation that points back to the research.
• Who is the intended audience? This will give you a clue to the author’s intent. Is the author attempting to sell something or entertain you? Or are they trying to understand, explore, educate, or inform?  Watch out for satirical publications (i.e., The Onion), and be careful not to take their information at face value.

Anyone can publish information online and there is no overall fact-checker of the Internet. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the information you find for your assignments or your own personal interests. The ABC³ method of website evaluation highlights important points to consider as you research online sources: Authority, Bias, Content, Currency, and Consistency. 

Authority
Authority refers to who wrote the information and why you should trust them. Check to see if the author has credentials on the subject matter in terms of a degree and/or extensive experience. This helps verify that they are qualified to write about the topic. The author’s name is typically listed under the title and is commonly hyperlinked. Be aware that sometimes author does not refer only to one person but it can be a group of people, an organization, a company, and so on.

Locating the author:

• Usually located under the title of the article
• Sometimes located at the end of the article
• Contact us webpage

Evaluating authority:

• Click the hyperlinked author’s name (if applicable)
• Read the author’s bio
• Check the website’s About Us section
• Google the author
• Check Social Media  
• How easy is it to contact the author in case you have questions?

Bias
Bias refers to the level at which the author’s personal beliefs, opinions, or interests are displayed in the information. Is the author trying to make you feel a certain way? Are the author’s words emotionally charged? Can you tell how the author feels about the subject? Also, take a look at the sponsors to see who is funding the information to ensure they are not swaying the objectivity of the message being conveyed. Lastly, consider your own bias or experiences that may impact how you interpret the information you find.

Locating Bias:

• Words used in the article 
• Check the ads
• Check the mission statement of the website

Evaluating bias:

• Is the article written in the first person? (This is not necessarily a deal-breaker but may indicate a limited view on the topic.)
• Does the article contain a high level of emotionally charged language?
• Do you have preconceived opinions about the topic?

Content
Content refers to the information contained in the article. Does it make sense? Is it appropriate for your intended audience? What was the editing process? How is the information researched? What is the content type (entertainment, education, research, informational, etc.)? 

Locating Content:

• The text of the article or web entry
• Check methodology section (for peer-reviewed articles)

Evaluating Content:

• Check your assignment to verify the types of sources allowed (e.g., websites, peer-reviewed publications, newspapers, etc.)
• Check for editorial guidelines and/or the About Us page
• Check references, works cited or hyperlinks
• Check the length of the article
• Check for spelling or grammatical errors
• Verify that people quoted or companies mentioned actually exist

Currency
Currency refers to when the information was written or last updated. How regularly is the website maintained?

Locating Currency:

• The publication date is usually located underneath the title or at the end of the article.
• Many websites have a last updated or copyright date at the bottom of their webpages. 

Evaluating Currency:

• Check your assignment to ensure the publication date of the information falls within any stated timeframes.
• Check to see if there have been any new developments on your topic that were published after your article. (This can be accomplished by checking to see if any articles have cited your article, performing a google search on your topic and restricting the timeframe, or checking the library’s databases.)

Consistency
Many times your instructor will require you to include multiple sources in your research. This is to ensure you have a consensus on your topic and that you are not taking just one source’s word for it. Verify, verify, verify.

Locating consistency:

• This is done by reviewing other websites.

Evaluating consistency:

• Check your assignment for the number and types of sources required.
• Check other sources to see if they have the same information on your topic.

"ABC3 Criteria." Valencia College Library. Valencia College, Updated 22, July 2021. Web. 3 Aug. 2021. 

"Evaluating Scholarly Sources." Texas A&M University Writing Center. Texas A&M University, n.d. Web. 3 Aug. 2021.

“Evaluating Sources: Use the C.R.A.P. Test!” Mercer University Libraries. Mercer University, n.d. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.

“CRAP Test: Evaluating Websites.” South Mountain Community College Library, South Mountain Community College. Updated 25 July 2014. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.

“The CRAP Test.” Ohio University Libraries. Ohio University, Updated 23 March 2012. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.